A.     Introduction

The CTS based its training products on a view of curriculum development that encompasses a
holistic approach: assessment of learner needs and situational analysis of learners’ environments,
attention to learning strategies as well as to “content” or information, an intermingling of the
disciplines that make up substance abuse prevention training (prevention theory, adult learning
and cognitive science, systems theory, communications theory, and community and organization
development), and appreciation for cultural diversity.

Realizing that many States and agencies prefer to develop their own curriculum that responds to
unique needs in their locales, the CTS even developed an entire course, the Curriculum Design and Delivery Process, that helps State preventionists craft appropriate training programs. Some of the concepts in this paper are derived from this curriculum. This paper briefly reviews some of the major contributions to the practice of curriculum development in recent years, explains the principles that went into the CTS’ approach to curriculum development, reviews what worked well and what was less successful in our various curriculum development projects, and recommends approaches to be taken in future efforts. The paper includes references to specific CTS curricula that serve as examples of the various curriculum development principles or approaches discussed here. A selected bibliography is included.

B.     Current Theories about Curriculum Development

• Focus on the 21st century—Wilson et al. (1991) conducted a 3-year collaborative research project to develop curricula for the 21st century. The study used a Delphi survey of 150 leaders in business, government, and education. Dominant themes included change and adaptability, global interdependence and cultural diversity, quality of life, technology, and self-actualization.

• Holistic, multidisciplinary curricula—Several authors (Hunkins and Hammill, 1994; Relan and Kimpston, 1991) believe that curricula should be holistic, unfettered by preestablished rules, responsive to conditions of constant change and unpredictability, emergent rather than fixed, and inviting synthesis rather than fragmentation of thinking.  If curricula are integrative rather than subject-focused, learners will be exposed to a holistic view of knowledge. Subject-focused curricula fail to provide learners with the intellectual skills needed in a competitive society, whereas integrated curricula allow learners to be actively involved in their own education. Integrated approaches to curriculum design have been associated with “intermingling” of disciplines such as thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving capabilities (Relan and Kimpston, 1991;Komski, 1990). Interdisciplinary curricula offer strong advantages and can best be prepared and delivered by designers working as teams (Martinello and Cook, 1994).

• Strong tie to the workplace—Askov (1992) recommends a strong tie to concerns of the workplace to hold the attention of adult learners. At the same time, however, curriculumn development should incorporate learning strategies and thinking processes, not merely “content” (Meyers et al., 1991).

• Focus on outcomes—Curriculum design should take into account intentions and outcomes. It should encourage students to make choices and explore their consequences. (Coleman, 1991).

• Valuing of cultural diversity—Intercultural communication courses are necessary for teachers at every level. Multiculturalism and cultural diversity will have immense impact on global society, and multicultural issues should be incorporated into traditional curricula (Sessoms, 1994).

C.     Application in CTS

In addition to utilizing the thinking outlined above, staff of CTS training programs believed that using a systematic process (a model) for designing and delivering curricula would increase the effectiveness of training and educational experiences. This process includes assessing learning needs and designing, developing, delivering, and evaluating learning experiences. The process also incorporates principles of adult learning, transfer of training, and step-by-step guidelines that help make best use of the time, money, and expertise invested.

1.     Overview of the Cyclical Curriculum Development Process

As practiced by the CTS, curriculum development and delivery is a cyclical process (see Figure 1) that involves

• Identifying learning needs
• Assessing the audience
• Understanding cultural diversity
• Developing goals and objectives
• Evaluating the learning experience
• Facilitating the learning process
• Selecting methods and aids
• Selecting and tailoring content
• Delivering the learning experience
• Developing an action plan.

Figure 1
The entire process is evaluation-oriented. The cycle starts with identifying training outcomes which set the framework for evaluation. It winds its way through the phases shown in Figure 1 (frequently more than one phase is going on at once) and ends after the learning experience, when performance is assessed against the expected outcomes. This assessment may point to the need for a new journey: a repetition of part or all of the cycle to make adjustments or add new materials that will make the learning experience more effective. Within the curriculum design and delivery cycle there are close, yet flexible, interrelationships among the parts. The impact of decisions made in one part usually can be seen in the activities in the following parts. Also, the cycle is designed so that the instructor/facilitator can either move sequentially from part to part or modify the sequence to best fit audience learning needs. For example, the results of an initial needs assessment or situation analysis might indicate a lack of knowledge concerning risk and resiliency factors among various community groups. This might
become the basis of a new curriculum design and delivery effort. Even after the goals and objectives have been finalized, new research results could still be incorporated in the remainder of the process (design, development, implementation, evaluation). If the new research points to a change in the goals and objectives, they could also be revised.

2.     Major Considerations

The following are essential conditions for successful curriculum design:

• A performance problem or learning need that can be alleviated by training or education must be identified before the learning event can be designed.
• Measurable goals and objectives must be formulated specifying the learning that will occur so that the desired outcome can be achieved.
• All learning activities must enable participants to acquire the knowledge, skills, or attitudes necessary to meet the goal and objectives.
• The learning event must be evaluated to determine whether or not the goals and objectives have been met.

• The learning outcomes, goals, and content are compatible with the participants’ skill and experience levels.
• Participants are allowed to participate actively in identifying learning needs, in performing learning activities, and in determining whether the learning goals have been met.
• The content and activities of the learning event help participants learn to solve real, (possibly job-related) problems.
• Participants are encouraged to see relationships between new learning, prior learning, and past experience.

3.     Essential Elements of the Curriculum Design and Delivery Cycle

Identifying Outcomes for Training—The systematic investigation of the outcomes assists the trainer in determining whether or not the issues(s) identified in the outcomes can be addressed by training. Possible outcomes include information sharing, motivation/awareness building, educational activities, action planning, environmental change, creation of alternatives to substance use, and shifts in professional practices and/or behavioral norms. (See also Training Evaluation). First, it is necessary to collect and analyze information about the issues outlined in the outcomes. Appropriate information collection methods are chosen based on all available resources. Finally, information is collected and analyzed to show in measurable terms, if possible, the exact nature of the issues identified in the outcomes and what steps are needed to translate the outcomes into practice. Also, the analysis should include the extent to which the outcomes affect the goals and tasks of the organization/business/agency.

Understanding the Audience—The CTS tried to understand how learning styles affect peoples’ responses to learning events. We also looked at the intended audience in terms of age range, gender, educational background, cultural background, learning style, and on-the-job responsibilities. This information was useful in designing the content and methods to be used in learning events. Besides the individual characteristics of audiences, we developed a means of looking at the circumstances in which audiences operate to guide curriculum development efforts. This method is called situational analysis. An entire curriculum has been developed around situational analysis: see Situational Analysis.

Developing Goals and Objectives—The CTS tried to establish clear training goals, learning objectives, and long-term objectives based on the outcomes that an individual/organization wanted to accomplish. The goals and objectives indicated what participants would learn and be able to do as a result of the learning event. The goals were stated so that learning objectives could be formulated in measurable terms. Along with learning objectives, long-term objectives were to be developed to establish a basis for evaluation.

Valuing Cultural Diversity—The CTS tried to increase participants’ understanding of cultural identities and how these identities affect learning and behavior. Action plans for developing cultural competence ensured that participants would continue to expand their understanding beyond the period of formal training.

Evaluating the Training—The CTS employed open-systems evaluation which uses many of the techniques of traditional training evaluation, with a slightly different twist. In the open-systems approach, four different levels of a system are examined:

1.    Effects—Did participants actually acquire knowledge and skills?
2.    Gains—Did participants apply the knowledge, attitudes, and/or skills learned/enhanced at the training?
3.    Outcomes—Did the outcome of participants’ applying the knowledge, attitudes, and/or skills reflect the desired result?
4.    Impact—Did the outcome support/affect the overall ATOD goal(s) (e.g., to reduce the incidence and prevalence of alcohol, tobacco, and other drug abuse)?

Sequencing, Structuring, and Tailoring Training—We examined training content and addressed the order and the method of delivery. An extensive pilot testing and verification process gave valuable information about changes that would make the curriculum more suitable for the intended audience. This approach also allowed us to take an existing curriculum and adjust it to meet the needs of an audience different from the one it originally addressed.

Selecting Training Methods and Aids—We tried to choose training methods that would best communicate the training content to learners and training aids most likely to enhance the learning. Three types of training methods and aids were employed: high-tech (e.g., computer-assisted training, distance learning); standard (e.g., overhead transparencies, prepared newsprint); and traditional (e.g., storytelling, use of nature).

Facilitating the Learning Process—This step focuses on acquiring the knowledge and skills necessary to create and maintain a safe and positive learning climate in which participants can effectively meet the course objectives. Stages of group development and basic training interventions are explored and participants give and receive feedback on their learning.

Delivering Training—CTS trainers are provided with an outline of the training design and an overview of the training goals, objectives, content, methods, and aids. Facilitation and presentation skills are both important to provide a learning environment where learning both content and process can take place. The training delivery step also provides the opportunity to look at basic values of the diverse groups of people with whom trainers work, and to consider various aspects of professional ethics for trainers. The advantages and disadvantages of training as a team are considered. (See also Training Delivery.)

Planning for Action—Training participants receive assistance in planning how they themselves will put new knowledge and skills into practice upon return to their home communities and organizations.
 

D.     What Worked

The following were some notable successes of the CTS in curriculum development:

Curriculum as Technology Transfer Vehicle

• CTS curricula were often conceptualized as technology transfer vehicles, providing learners with a broad menu of subjects and activities from which to choose. For example the Institute for Partnership Development (IPD), which has a very extensive “toolbox” of activities representing far more than any single individual would undertake, but offering individuals and groups a broad range of knowledge, skills, and activities, some of which will be relevant to their various needs and interests.

The concept (and in some cases, the reality) of curriculum as technology transfer has been as intimidating to some as it was exciting to others. It has taken time, patience, and training to convert from the traditional mode of “curriculum development” to the concept of technology transfer.

• Curricula often included topics apart from, although related to, alcohol and drug abuse problems. For example, several curricula treated the topic of violence extensively. (See Violence Prevention in Housing Communities; and AOD-Related Violence Prevention: Tools for Planning in Your Community.)

Many curricula focused on processes and concepts that have broad application beyond the immediate topic of ATOD prevention. For example, principles of managing change and concepts of multiculturalism were included in many of the CTS curricula and were applied to the problems and issues that participants brought to the learning event.

Use of Technology

• The various CTS developers learned how to design learning/training models integrating a range of methods, over time and over distance, that encouraged more continuous learning, more thorough learning, and more expert application than traditional classroom methods used alone. CTS tried to make technological products both “high-tech” (i.e., cutting edge) and high-touch (i.e., user friendly), and to utilize technology in a manner responsive to the learner rather than directed solely by the mechanics of the technology. For specific examples of the use of technology, see the following curricula: Guidelines for Prevention: Health Care Reform in Action; AOD-Related Violence Prevention: Tools for Planning in Your Community; and Prevention Dollars at Work.

Flexibility of Design

• CTS curricula took many forms in order to address the various ways in which people learn and apply their learning. These curricula had sufficient flexibility to address various levels of knowledge (novice to expert). For one of its key target audiences, CSAP Community Partnership grantees, the CTS developed both a basic institute for new partnerships, a more advanced institute for partnerships in an advanced state of development, and a third vehicle showing partnerships how to sustain their efforts.

Some CTS projects took pains to adapt their curricula for each delivery, depending on the identified needs of each new training audience. For example, the project that focused on training of volunteers in substance abuse prevention prepared a new version of each curriculum every time a course was presented.

• The CTS found that flexible curricula are more effective in meeting individual learning needs than a set curriculum where everybody gets the same thing. For example, see the Institute for Partnership Development (IPD), which allows for self-selection of learning materials to achieve self-determined goals and objectives.

Honoring Cultural Diversity

• CTS curriculum designs acknowledged and incorporated cultural diversity (using the broad definition of culture: racial, ethnic, geographic, generational, and professional). Curricula were delivered by culturally aware/culturally competent facilitators. See the Multicultural Leadership Institute, the Institute for African American Mobilization, Gathering of Native Americans, Asians/Pacific Islander Institute, and the Hispanic/Latino Leadership Institute.

• Cultural considerations are not only “politically correct,” but also essential to training development. Much caution was exercised by the CTS to define “culture” (see above) to ensure consistency of usage within the training.

• CTS programs recognized that changes in participant knowledge related to substance abuse do not always lead to prevention of ATOD abuse behaviors. Instead, culturally competent programs, staff, and strategies increase the likelihood of a successful prevention program. The CTS took pains to promote this cultural competence. (See also the paper in Section IE, Cultural Diversity.)

• CTS’ evaluation contractor developed a system for matching training objectives and outcomes. This system proved to be a useful addition to the design and development stage; it provided a framework for ensuring that learning activities eventually encourage application of new knowledge and skills to the learner’s job. (See also Training Evaluation.)

E.     What Should Be Done Differently in Future

Use of Cognitive Science

• Curriculum design must pay attention to the establishment of learning communities. Each learning experience should be built on the previous experience of learning. An interactive learning community should have practicums, so that the learner can practice or explore applying the theory/concept to a “real life,” back-home situation and can discuss, share, and revise the learning with others in the learning community.

• Cognitive learning methods must incorporate cultural variables in order to be truly useful to the various CTS learning audiences.

• Allowing for several pilot deliveries prior to final production of the course materials would save time in the long run. Moreover, frequent revisions should be anticipated. In the healthcare field, terms and roles change frequently enough that revisions need to be made at least annually to update terminology.

• The CTS should have exercised more patience in working through the technology. Sometimes technology got in the way of the CTS message, because developers were so new at it. CTS must work through the learning curve; technologically advanced staff must be sympathetic to other staff and to those in the training audience who are “afraid to turn on the machine.”

Focus on the Learner

• Designing training to be under the control of the learner takes lots of time. Designers cannot always anticipate the different routes an individual might take to reach a particular learning objective. This raises an important question: Should the CTS and other similar training systems put their hopes for learning and technology transfer on a single training event, or should they expand the notion of training and integrate it with other forms of performance support? Designers must realize that some learners will not go to training events, and ensure that the collective CTS materials are available on a computerized database with “help screen” to assist users in accessing them. This CD-ROM will help achieve this objective.

Traditional Training Still Needed

• The CTS and other similar training systems should acknowledge that there will always be a role for a human being to sit in a marketplace and instruct students. Traditional presentation of training will not disappear.

Training as a Toolbox

• Conceptualizing the CTS as a “toolbox” or compendium of useful information is a useful idea, but it requires an organizer. Thus far, the facilitator has served as the organizer and this will continue to be a key role for facilitators. Curricula themselves can also be thought of as guidelines to information and skills that are useful in various sets of circumstances. This concept is a key to the materials under development for a forthcoming CTS project entitled Prevention 2001, to be available in 1997 in various media, including the Internet.

F.     Summary

The task of “curriculum development” might be redefined as putting together many resources into a compendium. The goal, then, is not to order up a specific training program for a particular audience, but rather to provide a menu from which each audience can choose something suitable. The CTS needs to ensure that all the material audiences might need is gathered in one place, and determine whether it is available or under development. This CD-ROM is one means of making this happen.
 
 

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